Politics of Subsidies and World Trade

Politics of Subsidies and World Trade Introduction The modern world is characterized by unprecedented levels of interaction between people of different nations and cultures. This phenomena has been promoted by globalization, which is a process typified by the immense integration of economies and cultures.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Politics of Subsidies and World Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As globalization has increased, the volume of international trade has risen with all nations in the world expanding their list of international trade partners. To promote fairness in international trade, various trade-governing bodies have been established to deal with trade rules among nations. One of the issues that these trade-governing bodies such as the World trade Organization (WTO) have had to deal with is subsidies. Most nations regard subsidies as important policy instruments for ensuring their economic well-being in a competitive wor ld market. However, economists contend that subsidies lead to many negative results and adversely affect world trade. This paper will discuss the politics of subsidies and world trade so as to demonstrate that while subsidies have positive and negative impacts, pervasive subsidization is harmful to world trade. Definition of Subsidies The WTO defines a subsidy as a financial contribution by a government or any public body within the territory of a Member (Ryan, 2006, p. 126). Subsidies may be implemented when the government is involved in the direct transfer of such funds as grants or loans to an industry or when the government forgoes taxes that had already been accrued by an industry. Subsidization can also occur when the government provides goods or services that do are not necessary for the entire public but rather beneficial for specific industries. Ryan (2006) states that another way in which subsidies can exist is if a government reduces the price of a primary product with th e aim of giving the country a greater share of the export. Whatever the form they take, subsidies represent assistance from the government to producers or distributors in specific industries. Need for Subsidies Subsidies are an important policy instrument in the international trade system. They provide individual governments with the means through which to pursue industrial development and ensure the livelihoods of their citizens. Subsidies help to prevent the decline of an industry due to intense external competition or high production costs (Anderson, 2010). World trade has exposed local producers in most countries to immense pressure. Sectors such as agricultural production in developed countries have faced stiff competition leading to significant reduction in competitive advantages.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Subsidies are crucial for the industri al development of a country since they enable new technology to compete favorably with mature technologies. Historically, subsidies were responsible for the initial growth and development of commercial air transport (Kim, 2007). When commercial airline were first introduced, they had to compete with well established modes of transportation such as automobiles, ships, and trains. Because of the huge cost of air transport and the safety concerns, the private investors could not succeed in the industry without government support. Huge government subsidies helped the airline industry to develop in its initial stages and become self-reliant. Impacts of Subsidies Positive Impacts Subsidies ensure the survival of vital industries in a country. In most developed nations, the agricultural industry is not competitive since most people are involved in the manufacturing and service industry. In addition to this, the local farmers cannot compete with farmers from developing nations who have l ow production costs leading to cheap food products in the international market. Governments argue that agricultural subsidies are an issue of national concern since food self-sufficiency is integral to national security. Goodman (2010) notes that food security in the US is ensured through farm subsidies, which allow US farmers to stay in business. Without these subsidies, the industry would collapse and the nation would be forced to rely on other countries for its food greatly compromising the independence of the nation. Subsidies help to ensure stability in the market and protect consumers from the volatility of the international trade environment. For example, the world oil prices are constantly fluctuating due to the changing demand for the commodity. Oil is integral for the energy needs of all countries but since most countries do not have this resource, they have to rely on the foreign oil-producing nations. Through subsidization, governments are able to keep petroleum costs lo w and stable therefore promoting industrial development in the country (Kim, 2007). Without subsidization, the economic growth and development of the country would be deterred since operation costs for industries would be markedly higher. Subsidies have promoted the development of alternative energy technologies, therefore increasing the likelihood of energy sustainability in the future. Kim (2007) reveals that subsidies have played a major role in the development of solar power and accelerated the adoption of less polluting technology by industry. Subsidies in alternative energy technologies are offered under the assumption that as the technologies mature and become mainstream; the cost of products will move downwards making governmental assistance unnecessary.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Politics of Subsidies and World Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Negative Impacts Subsidization in the agri cultural sector is harmful to the economic well-being of developing nations. Agriculture has emerged as the most sensitive topic in world trade and subsidization. Shumaker (2007) suggests that the sensitivity of agriculture can be attributed to the vast potential for trade that this industry presents. Each country therefore exhibits a drive to maximize the economic advantages available through agricultural trade for social, economic, and political reasons. Shumaker (2007) observes that most developing countries have few opportunities other than agriculture for trade and development and most of their exports consist of agricultural products. In spite of this reality, developed nations engage in subsidizing to protect their local producers. Farmers in developed nations such as the US exert great political pressures on their government to sustain subsidization and farm protectionist measures. Subsidies have contributed to the poverty experienced by farmers in developing nations. Rivoli (2009) agrees that rich country subsidies to their local farmers have a role to play in the difficulties experienced by farmers in the third world countries. Due to aggressive subsidization by developed nations, prices for agricultural products are kept artificially low since subsidies lead to an overproduction of commodities hence decreasing world market prices. Anderson (2010) reveals that foreign exchange from farming in most developing countries has been depressed by subsidies by governments of richer countries to their local farmers. This statement is corroborated by Rivoli (2009) who documents that a primary effect of US government subsidies for cotton producers is the increase in supply of cotton grown in the US and a decline in world cotton prices by up to 15%. The US domestic subsidy program puts downward pressure on the world price therefore penalizing other exporting countries. Subsidies promote inefficiencies in the market since producers are not penalized for engaging in inefficient practices. Kim (2007) asserts that subsidies prolong the life of inefficient firms and increase the tax burden on the nations citizenry. Subsidies guarantee producers that they will make a profit even if they engage in inefficient practices. The market is prevented from working in its natural way and the producers gain an unfair competitive advantage. Subsidies give unfair advantages to some countries on the international market. The EU and the US engage in export subsidization to promote local production of some goods. While such moves are beneficial to the producers, they lead to trade distorting (Rivoli, 2009).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Producers from the subsidizing countries have an unfair advantage over producers from countries that do not subsidize their products. This unfair advantage created by subsidies has the potential to damage international trade as nations take up protectionist measures in retaliation to export subsidies by other nations. These retaliations might include trade restrictions and imposition of high tariffs on imports to protect the local market. Such measures are against the trade liberalization efforts of world trade. Addressing the Subsidies Issue The negative effects of subsidies present significant problems in the development of world trade. To address the negative impacts of subsidies on world trade, the WTO has a well-defined political framework for resolving issues between countries and negotiating trade rules for the trading member states. This organization also has an Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, which aims to restrict the use of subsidies by individual coun tries (Ryan, 2006). The WTO has set up rules that prohibit member countries from aggressive subsidization that might hurt other nations. Measures have been taken to address the issue of trade distorting caused by rampant subsidization. WTO member states have been provided with a forum for presenting cases against nations that are considered to be engaging in aggressive subsidization. Using the Discussion and Conclusion Government policy makers and economists agree that international trade is crucial for the economic development of a country and it is one of the ways through which poverty can be eradicated especially in developing nations. However, for this to occur international trade has to be fair and beneficial to all the parties engaged in trading. Most subsidies lead to unfair trade and reduce the economic advantages that world trade might offer to a country. For example, excessive agricultural subsidies by developed nations have led to a reduction of national and global econom ic welfare and led to trade restriction. This paper set out to highlight the politics of subsidies and world trade with special focus on the impacts of subsidization. The discussions provided in this paper highlight that subsidies have beneficial and damaging impacts on the individual countrys economy and world trade. The paper has noted that subsidies are necessary to promote industrial growth, encourage new technologies, and protect local industries from volatile markets. However, aggressive subsidizing leads to trade distorting in the international trade arena therefore depriving third world countries of export currency in agriculture. From the arguments provided in this paper, it is clear that subsidies cannot be dismissed since they are a tool that countries can take to protect their own economic interests and the wellbeing of their citizens. However, steps should be taken to deal with subsidies that lead to negative trade outcomes in order for all nations to benefit mutually f rom world trade. References Anderson, K. (2010). Can the WTO reduce agricultural trade distortions? The Journal of International Trade Economic Development, 19(1), 109–134. Goodman, R. (2010). A five-Point Defense of Farm Subsidies. Retrieved from: http://alfafarmers.org/programs/ Kim, K.H. (2007). The Impact of Subsidies on Global Markets. Proceedings of the Northeast Business Economics Association, 12(1), 28-31. Rivoli, P. (2009). The Travels of a T-Shirt in the Global Economy: An Economist Examines the Markets, Power, and Politics of World Trade. NY: John Wiley Sons Ryan, L. (2006). Dogfight: Criticizing the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Amidst the Largest Dispute in World Trade Organization History. North Carolina Journal of International Law Commercial Regulation, 32(1), p115-157 Shumaker, M.J. (2007). Tearing the Fabric of the World Trade Organization: United States Subsidies on Upland Cotton. North Carolina Journal of International Law Commer cial Regulation, 32(3), 547-603.

Math Enquiries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Math Enquiries - Essay Example This essay will therefore evaluate various mathematical functions involving numbers, measurements as well as how math has developed overtime to get to what it is today. Just like humanity, mathematics is quite old and is said to have originated in Egypt and Greece as simple to the complex one we have today. In the historical times, mathematics encompassed arithmetic, geometry and algebra, making it get known as a science of quantity; while others referring it to as science of simplicity (Rouseball, 2010). Several developments in the field however got realized in the 19th century where mathematics spread its wings to an extent of being regarded as a science of inferences and relations to the fact that it now consisted of logic that was symbolic (Lavine, 1994). To date, mathematics as a discipline now covers a wide range of areas including numbers, geometry, algebra, calculus, set theory and mathematical logic, as well as statistics and probability that are known to be more applied aspects of the discipline. Mathematics also covers other areas like graph theory, differential geometry, topology, model theory, among many others. When it comes to number bases, we have two types; the binary and hexadecimal systems. As for the case of binary number bases, what is contained here is the ones and zeros and zero through nine for the hexadecimal system. In the base ten system, the ten stands for 1 and 0, and not a single numeral 10. In this case therefore, for one to count one more than nine, the ones column is zeroed out ant the tens column added 1 onto. If the tens column gets too big, both the ones and tens column are zeroed out and add one to the ten times ten (Stapel, 2014). Another thing worth noting is that any number raised to power 0 is 1. For instance, in conversion of base 2 numbers to their corresponding base 10, all you need are digits of the

Professional Skills Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Professional Skills - Assignment Example ..13 Word Count: 2562 Introduction Each and every person present in this world has some special interests and he sets up his targets and objectives according to those interests. These interests and objectives then dictate the selection of educational career and thus the whole life of the individual is based upon those objectives and interests. Selecting the right education is the first step towards achieving those goals and objectives; the next step is to devise a strategy through which one can utilize his abilities and education for reaching the set targets. A good strategy is very much necessary for utilizing one’s abilities and education because for better performance an environment in which a person can work independently without any external pressures, is very important. I want to work on the same lines; I first identified my targets in life, then selected an HE course for achieving those targets and during my educational career, I believe in developing certain profession al skills and attitude essential for excelling in life. Selecting a computing course related to information security was my choice because studying an innovative subject which could help me in starting a career in computing technologies was a better option. I plan to gain some professional experience during the starting years of my career by working in any established business and then after gaining certain essential expertise, the next objective will be to establish a business of my own, a consultancy providing solutions in information security. For achieving these targets, technical and professional development is essential because technical knowledge will help me in carrying out different projects whereas a professional attitude is essential while working in a team, particularly for leading a team of individuals (Cottrell, 2010). Currently I am good at researching and learning through various resources, however I have also identified various areas in which I need to improve if I have to achieve the targets I have set for myself. Because of the fact that English is not my first language, I have to face a lot of difficulties in oral communication and effective communication is vital for excelling professionally because a person has to convey his ideas effectively in order to convince people around him. Another important area in which I need to improve is leadership and working in teams. Because of the problems faced in communication I cannot work very well in teams despite knowing my role in the team and having all the expertise and skills required to fulfill that role. Another major concern is my leadership abilities which currently I do not possess but I need to develop leadership qualities if I have to establish a business of my own. Education and Professional Development The HE program I have selected i.e. Information Security in Computing Pathways is the best suited program for achieving the targets I have set for myself. While selecting this program I c onsidered my interests first. Being fascinated by the technological advancements

Two Handed Bowling and Sandbagging Essay Example for Free

Two Handed Bowling and Sandbagging Essay Sandbagging is a term used in many sports to define someone that is intentionally playing the sport bad in order to better themselves with handicap. There are people that completely agree with this and use the handicap as an advantage. On the other hand, you have the people that are for all intentional purposes trying to do their best every week and try to keep their average high. There are two sides to every story and finding out the cheating side is always the hardest. Bowling two handed has become a controversy because people technically aren’t switching hands, which is against the rules, instead they are switching styles and this usually causes them to have a lower average. Some people think that a new rule should be added to completely do away with the two handed style all together and others think that if people want to sandbag, then let them sandbag. Two handed bowling has been a controversy since Jason Belmonte started bowling at the age of just two years old. Before that, though, two handed had never been seen and everyone bowled with just one hand. It hasn’t been a problem against the rules, it has been a problem called ‘sandbagging.’ Sandbagging happens in leagues and gives that person an advantage. For example, if a one handed bowler with a 200 average starts out bowling two handed with a 160 average, he can get a higher handicap and finish out bowling one handed. The higher handicap will give his team more points. This goes into the idea of it being ethical. It’s technically cheating and if you are aware you are doing this to win, it isn’t right. If a bowler cheats and sandbags, should they have to finish out the season bowling the way they started? This isn’t just to win their league, it’s to also help them win tournaments that have handicap. â€Å"They seem to flock to handicap leagues and on occasion have a career year in a high money scratch league with team maximums.† (Rodriguez). Bowlers look down on the people that do this because it isn’t fair to the ones that keep their averages high and take the sport seriously. The argument with two handed bowling isn’t that it is against the rules, it’s that people abuse it. They sandbag with two hands, then bowl one handed in tournaments to win. People want a rule made to go along with the rule that says if a person starts out left/right handed, they must finish out the season left/right handed, to say that if a person starts out bowling one/two handed, they should finish one/two handed. â€Å"The emergence and growing popularity of what is known as the two-handed delivery in bowling has caused the United States Bowling Congress (USBC) to consider its impact on the rules and application of the sports specifications.† (Henry). This quote is explaining that USBC is looking into the rules and could possibly add a rule that is against switching between two styles. However, there are some exceptions and some people that think sandbagging is an ‘ok’ thing to do. Not only is this an argument against the rules, most people strongly disagree with the idea of sandbagging because it gives people an advantage in handicap tournaments. â€Å"†¦if I have the ability to be a consistent 200-average bowler, but I spend all season deliberately averaging 170 or so, my handicap will be that of a bowler much worse than me. So, when the important games start, I go back to bowling as I know I can, and I have an additional 20-30 pins of handicap as a cushion.† (Goodger). This is explaining how the handicap works and why people sandbag. Handicap tournaments are for people with averages usually under 220. The reason they have the rule that you can’t switch hands is because people will bowl with their ‘bad’ hand to set a low average, then in tournaments, they bowl with their right hand and dominate the competition. It’s the same thing by switching styles. People bowl two handed, which can be by their same hand, but actually bowl one handed. The only thing that people think should be allowed is picking up spares one handed. A two handed bowler, Osku Palermaa, bowls his first ball two handed but picks up spares one handed. Almost everyone that are against the switching of styles think this should be allowed. This is where stats come into play. If someone can average a 210 one handed and a 170 two handed, they should only bowl one handed on the first ball. On the same page, if a bowler averages 210 two handed, and just 180 one handed, then they should only bowl with two hands on the first ball. The switching of the two styles could be the equivalent of switching hands in golf. Maybe a shot is easier for someone left handed and they can make the shot, even though they golf right handed. That option is not allowed in bowling, and with the many styles that are offered today, there has to be some rule to balance the field. Tournaments in the youth and some adult tournaments are used with handicap. So handicap with bowling would be a good thing. You average 200 and shoot a 210 with a handicap of 100% of 220, and you technically shoot a 230. This is the same in golf, if a golfer has a high handicap, then that means his ‘average’ is higher than some other golfers with a low handicap. It’s almost backwards in golf, but works the same way to ensure that players can play each other and be equal, regardless of skill level. I think of true athletes like Tiger Woods, Michael Jordan and Derek Jeter. â€Å"Can you imagine for one second any of them missing the winning putt, not making the game winning shot or striking out INTENTIONALLY? I didn’t think so.† (Doe) This quote is saying that a bowler averaging 170 is not going to make that game winning strike, and it’s very obvious when someone is sandbagging. In every sport there is always someone trying to bend the rules and take advantage of things such as handicap in order to win tournaments. In golf, someone can shoot horribly and have a high handicap, and then shoot great in a tournament and nobody can beat him at all. This is taking advantage of an idea that is supposed to even out the players based on their personal ability. So if you do better than your average with a 170, and someone else does a little worse than theirs but bowls a 210, then you should win, regardless of the scores. That is how handicap works in bowling, as well as golf. This is a moral thing and I don’t see how someone can win in terms of cheating. You can’t cheat in football or any other sport, so why be able to in bowling? The basic counter argument of this idea is that sandbagging and switching hands to do so is something that is ‘normal.’ Some people think that taking advantage of this idea is why it was put in place and they can abuse it if they want to. If they want to sandbag then there is no rule that is preventing them from it. From their point of view, it’s only cheating if you get caught, and most people report them to their league supervisor or coach. Some even sandbag in the first couple of weeks and then bring their average up gradually in order to stay hidden and ‘under the radar.’ Besides, it isn’t like everyone else can’t throw a few bad balls their first few games of a league. An article about why sandbagging is allowed in bowling alleys explains it. â€Å"The only real handicap we are dealing with in bowling is money. If the bowling alleys have to throw a blind eye to what is going on they will, this is the only way to keep them in business.† (â€Å"Bowling tips for beginners†)Money and keeping their league members is exactly why they don’t report the sandbaggers. They are almost always the ones that know how to bowl bad and make it look like an accident. Another thing they look at is that if people don’t like sandbagging, then they can go join a scratch league, in which there is no handicap so you have to bowl well. You may be able to bend the rules and some people may not care if they cheat, but sandbagging is wrong in all levels of sports. Even in a youth league where you have ages ranging from just 7 years old all the way to 19 or 20 years old. But even in these youth leagues you have the bratty teenager that knows his or her way around the rules. When bowling in these types of leagues, there is handicap, and hundreds of dollars worth of scholarship money is on the line. What a better way to make sure you get the top amount than cheat your way to the top. What a better way to win tournaments than to cheat. While that is going on you have the kids that try hard every single week to keep their average up and usually do a great job at it. So when those kids get in tournaments sometimes they do better than their average and they deserve that trophy or money. But three lanes down you have a guy that really averages 210, bowling with a 180 average and that isn’t fair to the ones that try and work hard to have the average they want. To show some statistics and numbers, I found an article that shows just how hard it would be for someone in golf to shoot two over par with about a fifteen handicap. This would be the equivalent of a bowler averaging 175 and bowling a 680 series (three games put together). â€Å"The guy, a member of the host club, claimed a midteens handicap, but in his practice round shot a couple of strokes over par. The odds against a true midteens handicapper shooting such a score are greater than 37,000 to 1.† (Golf Journal). All this is saying is that if you are going to sandbag to win, don’t make it so obvious. To prove that sandbagging is wrong and to show how handicap does work, I have put together a situation. In a tournament that was last week, two guys, we will call them Bill and John, were bowling against each other and both were doing extremely well. The handicap for this tournament is 100% of 220 pins, which means whatever their average is, for example a 200, their handicap would be 20. These two guys are bowling and they are bowling very well scratch (without handicap), but with handicap one of them was losing tremendously. John has been bowling since he was five and has never changed his style, except this year he decided to throw two handed at the beginning of the season and averaged just 180. His average went way down so he later decided to go back to his normal style in which he averages 210. So he goes into this tournament with a 190 average and actually has a 210 average. But Bill, a newbie that hasn’t even been bowling two years yet, has tried to keep his average at a 200 all year long and has succeeded. This was the championship game and Bill had worked his way up the ladder to bowl John who qualified first. Starting off, John already has a 10 pin advantage over Bill because his average is just 190, which gives him a 30 pin handicap compared to Bill’s 20. But remember, John’s real handicap is only 10 because he sandbagged earlier in the year to make his average lower. The two start bowling and John shoots a 268, But Bill only misses once and gets a bad break, but finishes out for a 275. Now, technically, Bill is the real winner here and he bowled a great game to finish with a 275. But with handicap, Bill’s score is a 295 and John’s is a 298. So John won because of the handicap. How is this fair? If John had actually worked hard to average 190 and managed to bowl a 268, I believe that he should win hands down. But, he didn’t, he cheated and he shouldn’t have won. I have personally bowled in many tournaments and leagues and I witness adults sandbagging on a monthly basis. I see bowlers that can throw a great ball, and throw it straight at the pins like a beginner. I find this extremely unfair and I do see it as cheating. â€Å"All good is hard. All evil is easy. Dying, losing, cheating and mediocrity is easy. Stay away from easy.† – Scott Alexander. (Brain Quotes). The quote explains itself. Cheating is the easy way to do things and you don’t get any satisfaction from beating someone by cheating. It’s like using steroids in baseball, or taking off a restrictor plate in racing, you will get caught and it’s not as fun. Why would someone ‘try out’ two handed bowling for a few weeks and then go back to their normal style? If they start out two handed then they finish that way and the same goes for a one handed bowler. Personally, my average two handed is 215, but one handed I couldn’t probably even average a 170. The facts are there and it isn’t fair that people sandbag in order to win. It’s wrong and hopefully one day the USBC bylaws will enforce this controversy.

Online Courses vs. Traditional Courses Essay -- Higher Education, Inter

Today, more and more colleges are offering courses to students that are entirely online. Students who are drawn to online courses include students working full-time jobs, students who would prefer a private study environment, or students who find that online courses are easier than traditional (campus-based) courses. Advertisements geared to encourage students to register for online classes have the tendency to portray them as being easier and requiring less work than its campus counterpart. For instance, some television advertisements show students wearing night clothes working in a relaxed environment within their home - free of the pressures caused by deadlines and testing. Despite the fact that online courses and traditional courses generally cover the same material on a given subject—the two are markedly different with regards to technical requirements, social interaction, testing, and practice. Possessing strong computer skills is one of the fundamental requirements for a student taking an online course. In contrast, traditional courses seldom require the use of computers; instead, online courses are conducted entirely on a computer via the internet. Students must know how to navigate the internet, use email to communicate and submit assignments, and use word processing and other programs required for the specific course. Students who are novice computer users will be at a great disadvantage and likely will not complete the course with a satisfactory grade. Students who possess these skills will be able to excel through online courses with greater ease, and more flexibility than courses taught on campus. Lack of social interaction is another factor that a student should consider when registering to take an online course. A... ...es, than courses taken on campus. Students absolutely must possess great self-discipline in order to successfully complete an online course. All things considered, besides a private study environment, the single most advantage of an online course over a traditional course is the flexibility they offer in scheduling, especially for students with fluctuating schedules. Nevertheless, despite advertisements, online courses require students to work as hard as courses taught on campus—if not harder. Students who lack computer skills, students who require strong social interaction, and students who are not strongly disciplined should take courses that are offered on campus. Students must carefully evaluate all of these points and any course literature available in order to select the type of course that best fits their learning style, as this has been most helpful for me.

Cultural Landscape Essay

A cultural landscape is a piece of land that possesses natural and cultural resources related to an historic event, person, or group of people. They are usually man-made lexis of relationships with the nature and/or society or culture. These can include grand estates, public gardens and parks, educational institutions, cemeteries, highways, and industrial sites. Cultural landscapes are also humanist works of art, texts and narratives of cultures that express regional and cultural identity. They also present relationship to their ecological perspective. Human activities have turned out to be a major cause of shaping most cultivated landscapes on the surface of Earth. Human, animal and machine labor expended in using the land can create outstanding cultural landscapes with high aesthetic, cultural and ecological value such as the paddy-field rice terraces of south-east Asia, but may as well result in land degradation as is the case in some regions in the Mediterranean. The distribution of landforms such as steep slopes, fertile plains, inundated valleys in a landscape sets the frame for land use by determining factors such as accessibility, water and nutrient availability, but may over long periods of time also be changed through land use. On the other hand, land use serves distinct socio-economic purposes: land may supply materials and energy through hunting, agriculture or forestry, it may host infrastructure, or it may be needed to absorb waste and emissions (Haberl et al. , 2004). Landscapes can be seen as the contingent and historically variable outcome of this interplay between socio-economic and biophysical forces. During the evolution of cultural landscapes throughout the world, humans have developed adaptive land-use techniques and created specific patterns of fields, farmsteads, remnant woodlots and the like that depended on both natural and socio-economic conditions. In European agricultural landscapes, the long history of land transformation has led to regionally distinct regular patterns of geometrically arranged landscape elements, reflecting the historical and cultural background of the prevailing land-use system of a region (Bell, 1999). The spatial distribution of ecotopes, the so-called landscape structure, has therefore often been regarded as a mosaic of ‘frozen processes’; i. e. landscape structure assumedly mirrors the processes which had been going on in a landscape. This perception has even become a central paradigm in modern landscape ecology. While many ecosystem processes are difficult to observe directly, landscape structure can be derived from mapping as well as from remote-sensing data; therefore, landscape structure was often not only used to evaluate the ecological value of landscapes, but also to judge ecological aspects of the sustainability of land-use patterns (Wrbka et al. , 1999b). The Influence Of Land Form On The Intensity Of Land Use Cultural landscapes have, in contrast to natural and semi-natural landscapes, special characteristics. The disturbance regime as well as the major material and energy fluxes in these transformed landscapes is controlled to a large extent by humans. This is done by the different land-use practices applied for meadows, arable land or forests. Decisions about land use are made according to the local agro-ecological characteristics which are nested in a hierarchy of social, economical and technical constraints. Cultural landscapes can thus only be understood by analyzing the interplay between biophysical and socioeconomic patterns and processes. Landscape Structure And Intensity Of Land Use Odum and Turner (1989) found that the landscape elements of the Georgia landscape in the early 1930s had a higher fractal dimension than the elements of the same region in the 1980s. During the same period of time the use of fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals increased dramatically. This illustrates that the growing human impact on the land may result in a landscape with decreasing geometrical complexity. Human activities introduce rectangularity and rectilinearity into landscapes, producing regular shapes with straight borders (Forman, 1999; Forman and Moore, 1992). Various studies suggest that the rate of landscape transformation is a function of land-use intensity (Alard and Poudevigne, 1999; Hietala-Koivu, 1999; Mander et al. , 1999; Odum and Turner, 1989), and that the geometric complexity of a landscape in particular decreases with increasing land-use intensity accompanied by a decrease of habitat heterogeneity and an increase of production units. Applying the thermodynamic laws to landscape structure, Forman and Moore (1992) suggested that the concentrated input of energy (e. g. , by tractor ploughing, plant production, wildfire) decreases the entropy of patches compared to adjacent areas and produces straight and abrupt boundaries. In other words, energy is required to convert natural curvilinear boundaries into straight lines and energy is required to maintain them. The reduction of the energy input increases entropy and revegetation convolutes and softens landscape boundaries. This means that the ‘landscape structure’, in the sense of Forman and Godron (1986), can be regarded as ‘frozen processes’. Landscape Structure And Biodiversity Many surveys show that species richness of vascular plants and bryophytes normally decreases with land-use intensity (Luoto, 2000; Mander et al. , 1999; Zechmeister and Moser, 2001; Zechmeister et al. , 2003). As the link between landscape structure and land-use intensity could be established, shape complexity as a measure of land-use intensity seems to be also a good predictor of species richness (Moser et al. , 2002; Wrbka et al. , 1999a). Accordingly, higher species richness in areas with high LD and richness values can be expected. The use of shape complexity indices as indicators for plant species richness is based on an assumed correlation between geometric landscape complexity and biodiversity (Moser et al. , 2002). Obviously, this correlation is not mechanistic but it is supposed to be due to congruent effects of land-use intensity on landscape shape complexity and species richness. Moser et al. (2002) gives a good literature overview about the driving factors responsible for the decrease of landscape complexity with increasing land-use intensity, which resulted in the following key findings: * The majority of landscape elements in agricultural landscapes are designed by humans as rectangles with straight and distinct boundaries (Forman, 1999). * Outside boundaries of semi-natural or natural patches are straightened by neighboring cultivated areas (). * Increasing land-use intensity is accompanied by a decrease of semi-natural and natural areas (Alard and Poudevigne, 1999; Mander et al. , 1999), resulting in a decrease of natural curvilinear boundaries. * Intensification in agriculture tends to increase the size of production units (Alard and Poudevigne, 1999; Hietala-Koivu, 1999). In addition to that intensification of land use on the production unit, e. g. , by fertilizing or increased mowing intensity, also leads to a dramatic decrease of the species richness (Zechmeister et al. , 2003). The description of the degradation of semi-natural and agricultural landscapes shows clearly the interdependence of biodiversity and landscape heterogeneity, induced by closely interwoven ecological, demographical, socio-economic and cultural factors. For an effective conservation management of biodiversity and landscape eco-diversity, a clear understanding of the ecological and cultural processes and their perturbations is essential. Intermediate disturbance levels lead to a highly complex and diverse cultural landscape which can host many plant and animal species. Landscapes, with ‘eco-diversity hotspots’, can be regarded as hint for ‘biodiversity hotspots’. Landscape pattern indicators therefore play an important role for landscape conservation planning. The understanding of landscape processes is crucial for the conservation of both, landscape eco-diversity and biodiversity. Conclusions From a conservation biology point of view, the ongoing process of genetic erosion and biodiversity loss as well as the replacement of specific recognizable cultural landscapes by monotonous ubiquistic production sites will continue. The biophysical characteristics and natural constraints of the investigated landscapes are interwoven with the regional historic and socio-economical development. This interplay is the background for the development of a variety of cultural landscapes which have their own specific characteristics. Geo-ecological land-units provide one solution. This is of special importance when the relationship of landscape patterns and underlying processes is under investigation. Works Cited Alard, D. , Poudevigne, I. Factors controlling plant diversity in rural landscapes: a functional approach. Landscape and Urban Planning, 1999: 46, 29–39 Bell, S. , Landscape—Pattern, Perception and Process. E. &F. N. Spon, London, 1999 Forman, R. T. T. , & Godron, M. Landscape Ecology. Wiley, New York, 1986. Forman, R. T. T. , & Moore, P. N. Theoretical foundations for understanding boundaries in landscape mosaics. In: Hansen, F. J. , Castri, F. (Eds. ), Landscape Boundaries. Consequences for Biotic Diversity and Ecological Flows. Springer, New York, 1992, pp. 236–258. Forman, R. T. T. Horizontal processes, roads, suburbs, societal objectives in landscape ecology. In: Klopatek, M. , Gardner, R. H. (Eds. ), Landscape Ecological Analysis: Issues and Applications. Springer, New York, 1999, pp. 35–53. Haberl, H. , Wackernagel, M. , Krausmann, F. , Erb, K. -H. , Monfreda, C. Ecological footprints and human appropriation of net primary production: A comparison. Land Use Policy, doi:10. 1016/ j. landusepol. 2003. 10. 008. , 2004 Hietala-Koivu, R. Agricultural landscape change: a case study in Y lane, Southwest Finland. Landscape and Urban Planning , 1999: 46, 103–108. Luoto, M.. Modelling of rare plant species richness by landscape variables in an agriculture area in Finland. Plant Ecology , 2000: 149, 157–168. Mander, U. , Mikk, M. , Ku. lvik, M.. Ecological and low intensity agriculture as contributors to landscape and biological diversity. Landscape and Urban Planning , 1999: 46, 169–177.

Slogans Of 1984 - 1164 Words

â€Å"From where Winston stood it was just possible to read, picked out on its white face in elegant lettering, the three slogans of the Party: War is Peace, Freedom is Slavery, Ignorance is Strength.† In the story, 1984 by George Orwell, the Party places this slogan everywhere to make sure they have the power over everyone the people. Although the Party’s ideas seem to contradict one another, their ideas do make sense in a way. If there is war between two countries and they are fighting one another, then their will be no fighting within the country. Everyone has one common enemy which makes them all on the same side. Also, if people are ignorant with no knowledge of anything except what the Party tells them, then they will not question the†¦show more content†¦People were leaping up and down in their places and shouting at the tops of their voices in an effort to drown the maddening bleating voice that came from the screen...The dark-haired girl behind Winston had begun crying out Swine! Swine! Swine! and suddenly she picked up a heavy Newspeak dictionary and flung it at the screen.† In the book the Party would show hate segments on a big screen for all the people to see. This causes people s violence and hate to shift away from the party. â€Å"People simply disappeared, always during the night. Your name was removed from the registers, every record of everything you had ever done was wiped out, and your one-time existence was denied and then forgotten. You were abolished, annihilated: vaporized was the usual word.† If anyone disobeys the party or they do something the party doesn’t like, they will disappear without trace. There would have been no record of them anywhere. â€Å"A handsome, tough-looking boy of nine had popped up from behind the table and was menacing him with a toy automatic pistol... â€Å"You re a traitor! yelled the boy. You re a thought-criminal! You re a Eurasian spy! I ll shoot you, I ll vaporize you, I ll send you to the salt mines! The party would also exploit young children for their own advantages. They would manipulate children into following their rules and using them as spies. â€Å"With those children, he thought, that wretched woman must lead a life of terror. Another year, twoShow MoreRelatedParadoxical Slogans in 19841661 Words   |  7 PagesSahil Aggarwal Williams IB English SL The Veracity of Paradoxical Slogans in 1984 The definition of a paradox is, â€Å"A statement that on the surface seems a contradiction, but that actually contains some truth.† In George Orwell’s, 1984, the use of paradoxes is exemplified in an attempt to allow the reader to understand the true intentions of a totalitarian government. By using war as a method of keeping peace in the society or even going so far as to further the degree of ignorance to greaten theRead MoreEssay about 1984: The Party Has Many Slogans1802 Words   |  8 Pages 1984: The Party Has Many Slogans In George Orwells 1984, the Party, the government of Oceania, has many slogans. One of the sayings is â€Å"Big Brother Is Watching You†. Despite the fact that the slogan is only mentioned a few times throughout the novel, it embodies the government that Orwell has created. We first learn of the slogan when the setting is described on the first page of the book. Orwell depicts, in explicit detail, the sights, sounds, and smells of Oceania. When illustrating the hallwaysRead MoreEssay about George Orwells 19841029 Words   |  5 PagesGeorge Orwells 1984 â€Å"No one is free, even the birds are chained to the sky.† This quote is not from 1984 but it may as well could be. Bob Dylan said this probably not knowing the connection it has with George Orwell’s 1984. 1984 depicts a dystopian world in which the civilians are watched and brainwashed constantly. There is no conventional freedom, there is no real individual in this world, there is a sense of coldness in 1984. The main character Winston is trying to figure out his past andRead MoreEssay about Propaganda in 1984682 Words   |  3 PagesIGNORANCE IS STRENGTH.† The Party’s slogans are all part of doublethink. In this example, the Party is trying to convince the citizens of Oceania that what they want is what they already have. They do not want freedom, because it is slavery. If they were free, they wouldn’t be unhappy and would not live the way they do. They are made to believe that war makes peace and serenity. That not knowing and being unaware of what is going on is strength. The Party uses these slogans to control the minds of the citizensRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book 1984 By George Orwell1084 Words   |  5 Pages1984 was written by British author George Orwell. The main character is an average man by the name of Winston Smith. Winston does not agree with the ideals of the party; this gets him arrested by the thought police. 1984 proclaims what could happen if people just let the government do all their thinking for them. 1.In the world of 1984, what is considered orthodox is not the same as the actual world. In the book in order to be considered orthodox one must never question the party or have any individualRead MoreThe Dangers of Totalitarianism: George Orwell Essay1563 Words   |  7 PagesHiding in the shadows yet standing in full view, the signs of totalitarianism and the dangers that accompany it in 1984 are everywhere. Orwell is able to paint a frighteningly realistic picture of the all-consuming monster that is a totalitarian state. It tries to hide its negative traits by covering them up with promising lies that bring a good public image to the state. When a totalitarian style of government is employed, it gains control over every aspect of life for any unlucky citizen or bystanderRead MorePower of Propaganda724 Words   |  3 PagesIn George Orwell’s 1984, lies, cover-ups and false information control the thinking of the citizens of Oceania. The Party uses propaganda as the dead liest and most efficient method of control. Propaganda increases the citizens’ morale and makes them believe that no matter what they are told, the Party is always right. There are two main types of propaganda; changing the truth, doublethink, and another by creating fear within citizens. â€Å"Doublespeak† is a major aspect of everyday life in Oceania. TheRead More1984 Doublethink Analysis1237 Words   |  5 PagesThe Role of Doublethink in The Government of 1984 â€Å" War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength,†. The following quote originates from the infamous novel, 1984 by George Orwell. The significance of this popular quote was to display an example of the action of doublethink. Doublethink is the act of having two contradictory thoughts at the same time and believing both are true. Doublethink plays an influential role in the novel, 1984. The novel takes place in a super-state by the nameRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s The Great Gatsby 1531 Words   |  7 Pagessaid, â€Å"Happiness can only exist in acceptance,† and this overall idea of acceptance would become a reoccurring theme in his literary work 1984. In 1984, Winston Smith, the protagonist, would team up with Julia, a fellow nonconformist, to fight the Party, and more specifically, Big Brother, all taking place in the continent of Oceania. Overall, the main concept of 1984 is the Party’s need to control every aspect of life, completed t hrough the use of constant surveillance, fear, language and more specificallyRead MoreHistory and the Novel 1984848 Words   |  4 Pages Other important features that distinguish or help define totalitarianism include restricted or eliminated constitutional rights, state terrorism, and totalitarian rulers are known as ideological dictators. The government of Oceania, in the novel 1984, is an example of totalitarian society. Germany, under Adolf Hitlers National Socialism is another example of totalitarianism. Orwells Oceania has both similarities and differences to the totalitarian states of the twentieth century. The government